The Gene Factor - Genetics

The Gene Factor:
Genetics: A Timeline

1590 The microscope was invented by Zacharias Janssen.

1663 Cells were first described by Robert Hooke.

1830 Proteins were discovered.

1833 The first enzymes were isolated.

1858 Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace announced together the theory of natural selection. The theory stated that members of a population who are better adapted to the environment survive and pass on their traits.

1863 While studying peas, Gregor Mendel discovered that traits are transmitted from parents to progeny by discrete, independent units, later known as genes. His observations laid the groundwork for the field of genetics.

1869 Johann Friedrich Miescher discovered DNA in human white blood cells and in the sperm of trout.

1879 Walther Fleming discovered chromatin, the rod-like structures inside the cell nucleus that later came to be called chromosomes.
In Michigan, Darwin devotee William James Beal made the first clinically controlled crosses of corn in search of colossal yields.

1900 Drosophila (fruit flies) was first used in early studies of genes.

1905 Nettie Stevens and Edmund Wilson independently described the behavior of sex chromosomes—XX determines female; XY determines male.

1906 The term "genetics" was introduced.

1911 The first cancer-causing virus was discovered by Francis Peyton Rous.

1924 Microscope studies showed that both DNA and proteins are present in chromosomes.

1927 Hermann J. Muller used X-rays to cause artificial gene mutations in Drosophila.

1928 Franklin Griffith, a British medical officer, discovered that genetic information can be transferred from heat-killed bacteria cells to live ones. This phenomenon, called transformation, provided the first evidence that the genetic material is a heat-stable substance.

1944 American Oswald Avery, and his colleagues Maclyn McCarty and Colin MacLeod, identified Griffith's transforming agent as DNA, the material of genes. Many scientists still believed at the time that DNA was too simple a molecule to be the genetic material.

1941 The term "genetic engineering" was first used by Danish microbiologist A. Jost in a lecture on sexual reproduction in yeast at the Technical Institute in Lwow, Poland.

1946 It was discovered that genetic material from different viruses could be combined to form a new type of virus, an example of genetic recombination.

1947 Barbara McClintock discovered transposable elements, or "jumping genes," in corn.

1949 Erwin Chargaff, a biochemist, reported that the amount of DNA varies from one species to another. In addition, Chargaff found that the amount of adenine equals the amount of thymine, and the amount of guanine equals the amount of cytosine in DNA from every species.

1950 Artificial insemination of livestock using frozen semen was successfully accomplished.

1951 Rosalind Franklin obtained sharp X-ray diffraction photographs of DNA.

1953 Nature published James Watson's and Francis Crick's manuscript describing the double helical structure of DNA, marking the beginning of the modern era of genetics. Much of their findings were based on the X-ray diffraction photographs produced by Rosalind Franklin.

1960 Messenger RNA was discovered.

1962 Francis Crick, James Watson, and Maurice Wilkins received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for determining the molecular structure of DNA. Rosalind Franklin could not share the prize, because she died in 1959, ironically, of cancer.

1964 The International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines started the Green Revolution with new strains of rice that double the yield of previous strains when given sufficient fertilizer.

1966 The genetic code was cracked, demonstrating that a sequence of three nucleotide bases, a condon, determines each of 20 amino acids.

1970 Specific restriction nucleases were identified, opening the way for gene cloning.
First complete synthesis of a gene.

1971 Discovery of restriction enzymes that cut and splice genetic material.

1972 The DNA composition of humans was discovered to be 99% similar to that of chimpanzees and gorillas.

1973 Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer perfected genetic engineering techniques to cut and paste DNA and reproduce the new DNA in bacteria.

1976 The tools of recombinant DNA were first applied to a human inherited disorder.
DNA sequencing discovered; first working synthetic gene.

1977 First expression of human gene in bacteria.
The first genetic engineering company (Genentech) was founded, using recombinant DNA methods to make medically important drugs.

1978 Recombinant human insulin first produced.

1980 The U.S. Supreme Court, in the landmark case Diamond v. Chakrabarty, approved the principle of patenting genetically engineered life forms, allowing the Exxon oil company to patent an oil-eating microorganism.
The U.S. patent for gene cloning was awarded to Cohen and Boyer.
Researchers successfully introduced a human gene—one that codes for the protein interferon —into a bacterium.

1981 Scientists at Ohio University produced the first transgenic animals by transferring genes from other animals into mice.
Chinese scientists became the first to clone a fish—a golden carp.
Three independent research teams announced the discovery of human oncogenes (cancer genes).

1983 The first artificial chromosome was synthesized.
The first genetic markers for specific inherited diseases were found.

1984 The DNA fingerprinting technique was developed.
The entire genome of the HIV virus was cloned and sequenced.

1985 Genetic marking found for kidney disease and cystic fibrosis.
Genetic fingerprinting made its entrance into the courtroom.
Genetically engineered plants resistant to insects, viruses, and bacteria were field tested for the first time.

1986 The Environmental Protection Agency approved the release of the first genetically engineered crop—gene-altered tobacco plants.

1988 Harvard molecular geneticists were awarded the first U.S. patent for a genetically altered animal—a transgenic mouse.
A patent for a process to make bleach-resistant protease enzymes for use in detergents was awarded.
Congress began funding the Human Genome Project, a massive effort to map and sequence the human genetic code as well as the genomes of other species.

1989 First field trial of a recombinant viral crop protectant.
The gene responsible for cystic fibrosis was discovered.

1990 Chy-Max^®, an artificially produced form of chymosin that is an enzyme for cheese-making, was introduced. It was the first product of recombinant DNA technology in the U.S. food supply.
The first federally approved gene therapy treatment was performed successfully on a four-year-old girl suffering from an immune disorder.
The first transgenic dairy cow—used to produce human milk proteins for infant formula—was created.
Mary-Claire King determined that 5–10% of women with breast cancer develop the disease because of a mutation to the BRCA1 gene.

1993 The FDA declared that genetically engineered foods are "not inherently dangerous" and do not require special regulation.
The FLAVRSAVR^® tomato—the first genetically engineered whole food approved by the FDA was on the market.

1994 The first breast cancer gene was discovered.

1995 The first full gene sequence of a living organism other than a virus was completed for the bacterium Hemophilus influenzae.
Gene therapy, immune system modulation, and genetically engineered antibodies entered the clinics in the war against cancer.

1996 The discovery of a gene associated with Parkinson's disease provided an important new avenue of research into the cause and potential treatment of the debilitating neurological ailment.

1997 Scottish scientists reported cloning a sheep, named Dolly, using DNA from adult sheep cells.
A group of Oregon researchers claimed to have cloned two Rhesus monkeys.

1998 University of Hawaii scientists cloned three generations of mice from nuclei of adult ovarian cumulus cells.
Embryonic stem cells could be used to regenerate tissue and create disorders mimicking diseases.
Scientists at Japan's Kinki University cloned eight identical calves using cells taken from a single adult cow.
The first complete animal genome for the elegans worm was sequenced.
A rough draft of the human genome map was produced, showing the locations of more than 30,000 genes.

For more information, at other Web sites...

Biotech Chronicles — contains large amounts of information on the history of biotechnology, from Access Excellence^®.
Genetics in Context — places discoveries and innovations in the study of genetics in context with other important historical events.
James Watson, Francis Crick, Maurice Wilkins, and Rosalind Franklin — biographical sketches of the scientists who unraveled the structure of DNA, part of Chemical Achievers from the Chemical Heritage Foundation.

1590	The microscope was invented by Zacharias Janssen.
1663	Cells were first described by Robert Hooke.
1830	Proteins were discovered.
1833	The first enzymes were isolated.
1858	Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace announced together the theory of natural selection. The theory stated that members of a population who are better adapted to the environment survive and pass on their traits.
1863	While studying peas, Gregor Mendel discovered that traits are transmitted from parents to progeny by discrete, independent units, later known as genes. His observations laid the groundwork for the field of genetics.
1869	Johann Friedrich Miescher discovered DNA in human white blood cells and in the sperm of trout.
1879	Walther Fleming discovered chromatin, the rod-like structures inside the cell nucleus that later came to be called chromosomes. In Michigan, Darwin devotee William James Beal made the first clinically controlled crosses of corn in search of colossal yields.
1900	Drosophila (fruit flies) was first used in early studies of genes.
1905	Nettie Stevens and Edmund Wilson independently described the behavior of sex chromosomes—XX determines female; XY determines male.
1906	The term "genetics" was introduced.
1911	The first cancer-causing virus was discovered by Francis Peyton Rous.
1924	Microscope studies showed that both DNA and proteins are present in chromosomes.
1927	*Hermann J. Muller used X-rays to cause artificial gene mutations in Drosophila.*
1928	Franklin Griffith, a British medical officer, discovered that genetic information can be transferred from heat-killed bacteria cells to live ones. This phenomenon, called transformation, provided the first evidence that the genetic material is a heat-stable substance.
1944	American Oswald Avery, and his colleagues Maclyn McCarty and Colin MacLeod, identified Griffith's transforming agent as DNA, the material of genes. Many scientists still believed at the time that DNA was too simple a molecule to be the genetic material.
1941	The term "genetic engineering" was first used by Danish microbiologist A. Jost in a lecture on sexual reproduction in yeast at the Technical Institute in Lwow, Poland.
1946	It was discovered that genetic material from different viruses could be combined to form a new type of virus, an example of genetic recombination.
1947	Barbara McClintock discovered transposable elements, or "jumping genes," in corn.
1949	Erwin Chargaff, a biochemist, reported that the amount of DNA varies from one species to another. In addition, Chargaff found that the amount of adenine equals the amount of thymine, and the amount of guanine equals the amount of cytosine in DNA from every species.
1950	Artificial insemination of livestock using frozen semen was successfully accomplished.
1951	Rosalind Franklin obtained sharp X-ray diffraction photographs of DNA.
1953	Nature published James Watson's and Francis Crick's manuscript describing the double helical structure of DNA, marking the beginning of the modern era of genetics. Much of their findings were based on the X-ray diffraction photographs produced by Rosalind Franklin.
1960	Messenger RNA was discovered.
1962	Francis Crick, James Watson, and Maurice Wilkins received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for determining the molecular structure of DNA. Rosalind Franklin could not share the prize, because she died in 1959, ironically, of cancer.
1964	The International Rice Research Institute in the Philippines started the Green Revolution with new strains of rice that double the yield of previous strains when given sufficient fertilizer.
1966	The genetic code was cracked, demonstrating that a sequence of three nucleotide bases, a condon, determines each of 20 amino acids.
1970	Specific restriction nucleases were identified, opening the way for gene cloning. First complete synthesis of a gene.
1971	Discovery of restriction enzymes that cut and splice genetic material.
1972	The DNA composition of humans was discovered to be 99% similar to that of chimpanzees and gorillas.
1973	Stanley Cohen and Herbert Boyer perfected genetic engineering techniques to cut and paste DNA and reproduce the new DNA in bacteria.
1976	The tools of recombinant DNA were first applied to a human inherited disorder. DNA sequencing discovered; first working synthetic gene.
1977	First expression of human gene in bacteria. The first genetic engineering company (Genentech) was founded, using recombinant DNA methods to make medically important drugs.
1978	Recombinant human insulin first produced.
1980	The U.S. Supreme Court, in the landmark case Diamond v. Chakrabarty, approved the principle of patenting genetically engineered life forms, allowing the Exxon oil company to patent an oil-eating microorganism. The U.S. patent for gene cloning was awarded to Cohen and Boyer. Researchers successfully introduced a human gene—one that codes for the protein interferon —into a bacterium.
1981	Scientists at Ohio University produced the first transgenic animals by transferring genes from other animals into mice. Chinese scientists became the first to clone a fish—a golden carp. Three independent research teams announced the discovery of human oncogenes (cancer genes).
1983	The first artificial chromosome was synthesized. The first genetic markers for specific inherited diseases were found.
1984	The DNA fingerprinting technique was developed. The entire genome of the HIV virus was cloned and sequenced.
1985	Genetic marking found for kidney disease and cystic fibrosis. Genetic fingerprinting made its entrance into the courtroom. Genetically engineered plants resistant to insects, viruses, and bacteria were field tested for the first time.
1986	The Environmental Protection Agency approved the release of the first genetically engineered crop—gene-altered tobacco plants.
1988	Harvard molecular geneticists were awarded the first U.S. patent for a genetically altered animal—a transgenic mouse. A patent for a process to make bleach-resistant protease enzymes for use in detergents was awarded. Congress began funding the Human Genome Project, a massive effort to map and sequence the human genetic code as well as the genomes of other species.
1989	First field trial of a recombinant viral crop protectant. The gene responsible for cystic fibrosis was discovered.
1990	Chy-Max^®, an artificially produced form of chymosin that is an enzyme for cheese-making, was introduced. It was the first product of recombinant DNA technology in the U.S. food supply. The first federally approved gene therapy treatment was performed successfully on a four-year-old girl suffering from an immune disorder. The first transgenic dairy cow—used to produce human milk proteins for infant formula—was created. Mary-Claire King determined that 5–10% of women with breast cancer develop the disease because of a mutation to the BRCA1 gene.
1993	The FDA declared that genetically engineered foods are "not inherently dangerous" and do not require special regulation. The FLAVRSAVR^® tomato—the first genetically engineered whole food approved by the FDA was on the market.
1994	The first breast cancer gene was discovered.
1995	The first full gene sequence of a living organism other than a virus was completed for the bacterium Hemophilus influenzae. Gene therapy, immune system modulation, and genetically engineered antibodies entered the clinics in the war against cancer.
1996	The discovery of a gene associated with Parkinson's disease provided an important new avenue of research into the cause and potential treatment of the debilitating neurological ailment.
1997	Scottish scientists reported cloning a sheep, named Dolly, using DNA from adult sheep cells. A group of Oregon researchers claimed to have cloned two Rhesus monkeys.
1998	University of Hawaii scientists cloned three generations of mice from nuclei of adult ovarian cumulus cells. Embryonic stem cells could be used to regenerate tissue and create disorders mimicking diseases. Scientists at Japan's Kinki University cloned eight identical calves using cells taken from a single adult cow. The first complete animal genome for the elegans worm was sequenced. A rough draft of the human genome map was produced, showing the locations of more than 30,000 genes.